from Wikileaks (stranger than fiction)
WIKILEAKS PRESS RELEASE
Fri Dec 12 22:07:22 GMT 2008
For Immediate Release.
The end may be nigh for the US military’s controversial and sometimes
fatal attempt to embed hundreds of anthropologists and social
scientists into military units under the “Human Terrain Program”
or HTS. Yesterday saw two major releases from Wikileaks and the
journal Nature relating to the effort.
Wikileaks released the unpublished, “bible” of the program, the 122 page
“Human Terrain Team Handbook”, dated Sep 2008. The contents confirm
allegations made by the American Anthropological Association last
year that the teams helped in “identifying and selecting specific
populations as targets of US military operations”.
Nature, the international science journal, called for the program
to be scrapped, saying that it was “plagued by deadly mistakes,” and
“needs to be closed down”. HTS contractors and employees stand accused,
variously, of murder, dousing each other in petrol, and spying.
Additionally, social scientist Michael Bhatia was killed in Afghanistan
in May and Nicole Suveges, a doctoral student from John Hopkins
University was killed in Iraq the following month.
The US military has attempted to paint the teams as assisting military
“cultural sensitivity”, but it is clear from the handbook that the teams
report to military unit commanders and are used to map family, political
and other relationships for general operations and irregular warfare.
Consequently the program appears to have attracted both enemy fire and
the bottom of the recruitment barrel–social scientists with few
opportunities who are willing to sell out the values of their professions
and Arab translators willing to assist in the targeting of Arab or
Afghani Moslems.
In these latter respects there is a parallel to the US military’s use of
psychologist and psychiatrist teams to interrogate detainees in
Guantanamo, Camp Bucca, Bagram and other prisons. These teams,
Behavioral Consultation Teams, or BCTs, have been similarly condemned
by professional bodies and exposed by Wikileaks whistleblowers.
Timothy R. Anderson:
For the next 48 hours or so please be advised, you’ll hear, see,
and get read that President Bush went to Iraq.
Timothy R. Anderson
14 December 2008, 3:30 pmStan:
Now you’ll hear and see him have shoes thrown at him by a reporter in Iraq. What a totally bizarre denouement for this regime.
Seriously, think of three or four years ago, and imagine that you could have predicted then, “One month before he leaves office disgraced before history, an Iraqi reporter will throw shoes at him.”
14 December 2008, 6:57 pmTimothy R. Anderson:
What was missing from President Bush’s trip to Iraq was a visit
to one of Iraq’s neighbors: Syria. Syria is where
tens of thousands of Iraqis are, today +++, because of the U.S.-led
military operations in Iraq; evidently the Iraqis who moved into
Syria thought that staying alive in Iraq was proving to be
much too difficult. The mainstream American media did nothing, does nothing, and likely will continue to do nothing to acknowledge
the human suffering that is now taking place in Syria.
Timothy R. Anderson
+++ an estimate given by the U.N. ’s High Commissioner
15 December 2008, 1:26 pmFor Refugees Laurens Jolles . Dahr Jamail. Hugh Naylor,
Chronicle Foreign Service.
James M:
What a totally bizarre denouement for this regime.
Bizarre, yes, but apparently only from our perspective here in the West. As we’re all finding out, what appears to us as just a bit of size-10 slapstick is within its geographic context an entirely culturally appropriate expression of a deadly-serious, pent-up rage. It’s spreading like a contagion throughout the Muslim world (I expect more such incidents soon) and who knows, might even have the potential to develop into a fad in this part of the world.
Its alien-ness to us heretofore, and our reaction to it, is I think very illustrative of something. This ignorance of the customs and gestures of a foreign land we would presume to occupy and stamp our way of life onto just perfectly exemplifies the cultural myopia that got us into this horrid mess in the first place. Chris Matthews the other night reached a new low of boorishness (no small feat) when he announced that “The American people are not impressed by this sort of thing. They think it’s silly.” What incredible self-centeredness! As if it were done for the benefit of the American people and their cable news cycles. As if the Iraqis give two fucks for us, except to see our hindquarters in retreat.
President Bush’s agile dodging of those well-thrown missiles also serves as neat symbolism for the trajectory of his life, I think. Here we see a career spent being rewarded for failure, creating ruinous messes wherever he goes in the lives of others, and being roundly despised for it, but always dodging (by some dumb luck afforded to idiots?) the worst consequences. I have no doubt he’ll live out the rest of a relatively long life in comfort, albeit reviled by the world and by history, but never seriously called to account for his crimes. Whatever powers of fate, karma, what-have-you that may operate on this earthly plane seem to have granted him an endless dispensation to fuck up and get away with it.
Also, btw — thanks for the vocab word, “denouement” … I especially like the way it sounds when pronounced by the robot voice on the Merriam-Webster online dictionary
Thanks for a great new addition to my vocabulary.
16 December 2008, 2:12 pmDa Buffalo Amongst Wolves:
In my opinion Modern warfare is linked directly into the US higher educational system and totally cross-disciplinary.
For instance, about 30 years ago, the the local college newspaper ‘blew the whistle’ on a CIA funded educational operation at one of the University of California campuses.
Quite simply, the GEOGRAPHY department at UC Santa Cruz was receiving CIA funds for a study that would help them with a sticky problem… The CIA tapped UCSC’s geography department (not sure whether overtly or covertly anymore… it’s been thirty years) to help out.
It seemed that the CIA could train their agents in a language till they were ‘dialectically’ (as in dialect) perfect. Dress them in clothing made in the region of insertion… teach them and drill them in all the local customs and rituals… Get them to drink Yak milk without gagging (I kid… maybe), but when someone came to town and would ask “Which direction to such-and-such village”, all the locals could immediately point out the direction, but the non-local could not.
Just one example the Military-Industrial-Educational complex at work, and even to this day, UC is ‘in’, and ‘in deep’.
16 December 2008, 7:56 pmKevin:
Stan,
Had shoes been thrown at a visiting leader while Saddam Hussein were still in power or had it been in any one of the neighboring middle eastern countries, the guy would have been decapitated on the spot. Seriously, I would not be suprised if it were staged to symbolize their free speach.
STAN: His remarks included, “Here’s a goodbye kiss, you dog,” and “You are a murderer of children.” I don’t doubt he wanted to speak, but his grievance was a good deal less symbolic than “free speech.” I doubt Turkey or Syria or Jordan (or even Kuwait) would have carried out summary executions either. That’s just anti-Arab drivel. Neither would have Iran… but they are Persains, not Arabs. So I guess ths generalization is just anti-Muslim drivel. The one place that might have happened, though “on the spot” is unlikely, is in Saudi Arabia… but they are the US “alllies.”
The occupation is illegal, immoral, and an exercise of collosal stupidity.
18 December 2008, 5:31 amMew:
What was their beating the living crap out of him symbolic of?
18 December 2008, 9:28 amDa Buffalo Amongst Wolves:
Mew: “What was their beating the living crap out of him symbolic of?”
It may only be tangentially germane, but someone once said “They’re there to protect private property and beat the crap (not exactly the word he used) out of people who don’t have any”. That person, Abbie Hoffman was speaking of the function of the police organizations in America.
As I said ‘tangentially germane’, but absolutely symbolically related.
18 December 2008, 8:07 pmOmahkohkiaayo i'poyi:
This is but classic social systems engineering. It means identifying and targeting the critical levers of power, institutions, personalities, contradictions and vulnerabilities to not only destabilize and overthrow targeted regimes and systems, but also to literally “engineer the predicate.” of the typical cold war syllogisms.
Nation X = Socialism
Socialism = Repression/Inefficiency/Backwardness etc
ERGO: ?
The idea is to place a targeted nation, system or regime under such siege, from so many directions, at so many levels, with so many weapons, and in so many ways, that the target reacts as any likely would under siege (Like Lincoln suspending Habeas Corpus during the Civil War or the U.S. after 9-11) and then those reactions to siege, without any reference to the provocations of the siege, are used to “prove” the predicates and caricatures of the social systems engineers as well as to create pretexts and justifications for interventions overt and covert. That is one use of social systems engineeering. Another use is to develop the “sociometrics” or “network analysis” that show the networks, associations, family relations, travel and communications patterns and modalities, etc that can be used for many purposes including effective collective punishment, interrogation approaches, prioitizing assassinations etc.
The good news is that the U.S. “education” [cloning] system is so bankrupt, and these types that typically go into the “academic disciplines” that are involved in social systems engineering (titled psychopaths) generally produce pure crap in the NIEs and operational/field reports and studies that they are not of much use; they do cause more casualties when relied upon.
In the new U.S. Army/USMC Counter Insurgency Manual, Petreus openly admits that COIN doctrine had not only not been updated in some 25 years since Vietnam, but admits it was the shame–and cognitive dissonance–of U.S. loss in Vietnam (the supposed “backward little ‘Gooks and Dinks’ defeating decisively the world’s largest war machine)” that caused COIN Doctrine not to be taught at the War Colleges and not even alluded to in any military publications–extreme cognitive dissonance. But the fact is that the so-called lessons of Vietnam were being learned and recorded as they occurred and can be found in “The Pentagon Papers.”
But no amount of COIN sophistication and technologies can save any imperial system on the wrong side of history and from its own hubis, internal contradictions and bloated and costly imperial overreach.
21 December 2008, 6:52 pmJeri Lynn:
Hey Stan, how are you?
I found this one very interesting. Surely not a surprise to anyone that this is not new, the origins of anthropology go back to colonialism, especially the British in India. Partitions anyone? Missionaries and anthropologists, hey, the missionaries have been there from the get.
As an escapee from academics, I have to question the idea that this goes against the “values” of the social sciences. I think it is right in sync. Besides, money is money, a grant is a grant, a job is a job, another line on the CV. You all seen that PBS show on the academics in Germany under the Third Reich?
23 December 2008, 2:32 pmRobert Karaffa:
Completely off-topic; does anyone want to weigh in on the death of Mike Connell?
http ://arkansas.indymedia.org/newswire/display/23207/index.php
23 December 2008, 9:48 pmcharles:
It has been said that anthropology is the handmaiden of imperialism and colonialism
24 December 2008, 12:40 pmMs Kitty:
The election integrity reporter and advocate, Brad Friedman of the Brad Blog has been collecting information on that. The MSM silence is curious, since he was so involved in coordinating IT systems for the Republican party, the White House and the Ohio voting tabulations, (two of which are under investigation.) It is an interesting story with more questions than answers right now.
As for weighing in, all I can say is that the odds for suicide or death in a small plane go way up if you are a Democrat in an upcoming crucial election, or are about to testify in an investigation that somehow involves the neocon crowd. It’s probably just an unfortunate coincidence.
25 December 2008, 5:28 pmMichael Anderson:
And a link from WaPo….some KGB-style social engineering courtesy the CIA. The Empire becomes cruder and cruder in its twilight. This is yet another example of the methods used in “primitive capital accumulation”. No doubt they will be used as basis for a “hit”, if needed—Afghanistan being a near-total narco-state.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/25/AR2008122500931.html?hpid=topnews
…excerpt…
Little Blue Pills Among the Ways CIA Wins Friends in Afghanistan
The Afghan chieftain looked older than his 60-odd years, and his bearded face bore the creases of a man burdened with duties as tribal patriarch and husband to four younger women. His visitor, a CIA officer, saw an opportunity, and reached into his bag for a small gift.
Four blue pills. Viagra.
“Take one of these. You’ll love it,” the officer said. Compliments of Uncle Sam.
The enticement worked. The officer, who described the encounter, returned four days later to an enthusiastic reception. The grinning chief offered up a bonanza of information about Taliban movements and supply routes — followed by a request for more pills.
For U.S. intelligence officials, this is how some crucial battles in Afghanistan are fought and won. While the CIA has a long history of buying information with cash, the growing Taliban insurgency has prompted the use of novel incentives and creative bargaining to gain support in some of the country’s roughest neighborhoods, according to officials directly involved in such operations.
26 December 2008, 2:56 pmMichael Anderson:
PS….and sexist as hell, too….
26 December 2008, 2:58 pmDa Buffalo Amongst Wolves:
Ms Kitty:
One of those coincidences? Or perhaps as “Dutch” Schultz, Murder Incorporated, is rumored to have said: “It must have been one of THOSE Coincidences…”
OpEd News on Mike Connell
Check out all these unexpected deaths of people involved with elections
Keep your coincidence caps handy, folks. People involved in elections and voting machine companies seem very unlucky. Especially those in Ohio (4 of the 7) and Georgia (2 of the 7).
By Pokey Anderson
Pokey Anderson has broadcast or published numerous reports on voting machine issues over the past four years. She co-produces a weekly news and analysis radio program, The Monitor on KPFT-Pacifica in Houston.
1. Dan Rocco — April 1, 2002 — ChoicePoint VP — plane crash
2. Wesley Vance — April 26, 2003 — Diebold VP — plane crash
3. Anthony J. Celebrezze Jr. — July 4, 2003 — Diebold consultant — cause of death not confirmed
4. Athan Gibbs, Jr. — March 12, 2004 — invented the TruVote system — car crash - collided w/ 18-wheeler
5. Andy Stephenson — July 7, 2005 — nationally known election activist — pancreatic cancer
6. Rev. Bill Moss — August 2, 2005 — lead plaintiff in Moss v. Bush — stroke
7. Mike Connell — December 19, 2008 — national GOP computer guru — solo plane crash
–30–
26 December 2008, 4:37 pmRobert Karaffa:
Ms Kitty: Thank you for weighing in. Coincidence is a word and concept I’ve generally had little faith in on matters that are this important. Ohio holds the key to so much. This trail is way too hot. I can smell the odor as the beasts scatter. (Like deer in the woods.)Thank you again.
26 December 2008, 11:02 pmRobert Reed:
“It has been said that anthropology is the handmaiden of imperialism and colonialism”
Yeah, I’ve heard that one before.
I’ve also run across the canard that “anthropology is Jewish crypto-Marxism”, or words to that effect.
Mind you, I’ve never been one to buy into the defensive retort so often offered by those who receive hostile criticism from both ends of the old 2-D ideological spectrum, that “therefore, we must be doing something right.”
Not necessarily.
So rather than simply dropping that cliched punch-line and resting the case (as if it demonstrated a Final Wisdom so self-evident that no further comment was necessary) this Anthropology BA* will attempt to explicate a defense of The Discipline.
First: I don’t know how Jeri Lynn got the idea that “the origins of anthropology go back to colonialism, especially the British in India”, but that simply isn’t the case.
The founders of the academic discipline of anthropology were not primarily of British origin. Yeah, they were European males. (Beware of the intellectual error of “Presentism”…it would hardly have been otherwise, would it? ) But anthropology hardly had its origins as an organized plot to subjugate the natives. At the outset, it hardly had organization at all…rather, it just sort of vaguely coalesced over time, as both the newest of the “social sciences” (bogus phrase) and the most holistic.
Get that point. “Holistic.” Anthropology is supposed to comprise the disciplined observation of everything that human groups do. Or something like that. It’s an umbrella subject, that way. Paradoxically, since the horizons it attempts to encompass are so vast, no one can hope to Master it. It’s a Controlled Folly, at best. And that is a Humbling State Of Affairs- or at least it should be.
By the time I studied it in the mid-1990s, anthropology consisted of four sub-disciplines: Physical Anthropology, Archaeology, Linguistics, and Cultural Anthropology. Whatever the emphasis one picked as a student, one was required to learn something of the other three.
But that isn’t how it started.
Before there was Physical Anthropology, there was Quack Science- like Phrenology, and Biological Explanations of the Blood Supremacy of the Aristocracy, And Of The Anglo-Saxon Race.
Before there was Archaeology, there was Looting.
Before there was Linguistics, there was Philology (which at least had the advantage of having the objective pursuit of knowledge as its primary goal.)
Before Cultural Anthropology, there was History, Travelogue, and Exotic Customs of the Natives, as related by the unreflective biases of the Explorers, the Conquerors, the Colonialists, the Merchants, the Priests, and the Missionaries.
The goal of Cultural Anthropology was to bust all of that. Believe it or not. One of the men considered to be the founder of academic anthropology was Lewis Henry Morgan, who was adopted into the Seneca tribe of the Iroquois Nations and given the name Tayadaowuhkuh, which means “bridging the gap” between the European settlers and the Iroquois. Morgan was one of the earliest ethnographers- someone who recorded observations of another people and their culture by living among them, rather than the traditional stance of keeping a perspective physically grounded at all times in the confines of ones own familiar society.
Since then, anthropologists and ethnographers have been sometimes been criticized for their presumption that they could ever hope to gain insight on cultures they weren’t raised in, no matter how much time and effort they spent attempting to learn the lifeways of a strange tribe.
I’ve always wondered at that critique, whenever it was delivered simply as a blanket dismissal. The subtext seems to be that the only possible purpose of an Ethnographic Anthropologist is to act as a Trojan Horse from the Dominant Culture- that any expression of openness, curiousity, and mutual acceptance and respect was simply a mask, and underneath the facade beat the heart of George Armstrong Custer, or Hernando Cortes. Blood Guilt, vulgar Marxist style. Cheap shot pseudo-analysis. More often than not, delivered as a judgement by “whites” against other “whites”- or even, once the more-radical-than-thou get on a roll, at “non-whites” of suspect Ideological Purity. Petty status one-upmanship in a contest for that most absurd of oxymorons, Academic Street Cred.
And one of the problems with that sort of sloppiness is the fact that Cultural Anthropology has been, from time to time, exploited in exactly that way.
CIA “ethnobotanists” in the South American rain forest, trying to “bond” and “do outreach” with the indigenous tribes so they can get hold of better brands of untraceable poisons and mind-bending chemicals for Allen Dulles, Sid Gottlieb, and the TSS pilot projects? Most likely.
Jolyon West, pursuing “ethnographic research” in the Haight-Ashbury in 1967 on behalf of his unknown (at least to me) superiors? Well, it looks that way.
Ethnocentric Imperialist American Establishment anthropologists? Sure. Consider the life and career of Carleton Coon, for crying out loud. But that isn’t the fault of the discipline of anthropology.
Think about it. There is no academic discipline that can’t be perverted to some extent by the material power of a corrupt ruling class. Critiquing anthro as “the handmaiden of imperialism and colonialism” doesn’t say much more than saying that “history is the handmaiden of imperialism and colonialism”, or “agricultural science is the handmaiden of imperialism and colonialism” or “social psychology is the handmaiden of imperialism and colonialism” or “psychedelic research is the handmaiden of imperialism and colonialism” or “Christianity is the handmaiden of imperialism and colonaialism.” Yeah, that’s what happens when they get their hands on it. Beyond that, the statement doesn’t carry much weight.
I like Cult Ant because it’s open-ended. It’s infinite. But it still has some decent founding principles, like the Psychic Unity of Mankind. And it doing it well does demand disciplined critical thought. No matter how anyone tries to make it a travesty- or how well they’ve occasionally succeeded.
And that’s why I’m not surprised that the US Government is apparently packing in and shutting down its latest Experiment in Necromancy, having attempted to play the Anthropologists into their game- with what was apparently, at most, “attenuated success.”
And presumably, those anthropologists who kept their wits about them sufficiently to keep performing their ethnographic “thick descriptive analysis” on the institutions in which they were embedded will have a few instructive tales to tell, as time goes by.
After all, that had to have been more of an intellectual challenge than answering clueless questions like “why them farmers keep growing so much opium? How do we talk them into crop substitution?”
“Well, General, I’m no Economist. But it seems to me that when you have a commodity that’s compact enough to have currency-like properties, worth its weight in precious metals and nearly as liquid an asset when given a properly hospitable set of political arrangements, the product of an agricultural crop that’s renewable…” Blah blah blah.
31 December 2008, 9:14 amRobert Reed:
I was just reading into the supplied link for the excerpt that opens this topic thread.
Oh brother.
“…The academic lineages exposed in the leaked Handbook are enlightening. In particular, the Handbook draws heavily from and cites the work of American anthropologist and research methods guru H. Russell Bernard (Disclosure: I have known Russ Bernard for over twenty years, he was a member of my doctoral dissertation committee, I consider him a friend.) and anthropologist James Spradley—both highly regarded anthologists and research methodologists. The Handbook recommends several specific ethnographic tools, some of which are found in many anthropologists’ toolkits including: “The core software components (Analyst Notebook, ArcGIS, Anthropac, UCINet and NetDraw) allow the team to conduct network analysis, Modeling and Pattern analysis and geo-spatial analysis that place those people and events in place and time.” The Handbook includes sample interview forms that can be used to catalog members of occupied populations in remote databases. There are discussions of qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis written at a high school or middle school level of sophistication, describing such techniques as producing ethnographic field notes or conducting structured and unstructured interviews. James Spradley’s 1979 “Taxonomy of Ethnographic Questions” and his “Elements in the Ethnographic Interview” are cited and reproduced in full. The Handbook includes a list of an interesting knowledge-tree of local concerns that military occupiers should be aware of—this list includes such items as knowledge of local archaeological resources, hand gestures, shortages of water, electricity and other resources. The list provides a matrix to be used by anyone wishing to inventory items needed when attempting to establish full spectrum dominance over a given occupied people.
The inclusion of these specific methodologies, toolsets, interview and inventory sets is an artifact of Human Terrain Systems’ focus on neo-positivist notions that social control of the human landscape can be achieved by the recording of, and then manipulation of key variables in these environments…”
All of this is the new shit. I was talking with some other anthro types about it, recently. Apparently, it’s one of the directions that’s taking off, in “the evolution of the discipline.”
Like hail it is. It’s behavioral social psychology, like ad people use. Utilizing the sort of ethnographic details traditionally noted by anthropologists doing fieldwork, and then boiled down to “metrics.”
I learned a little bit of it in school, mostly in my one “Kinship and Social Organization” class. I barely survived that one, it was my lowest grade. None of it stuck. Don’t ask me to explain the inheritance arrangements of the male offspring in Arab extended families. To this day, it eludes me. It is, however, readily quantifiable. And yeah, I have little doubt that sort of knowledge can be exploited by a military occupation force. To some extent. And quite probably, at the expense of other factors, unquantifiable on even the most complex multi-vectored graph. Like lasting goodwill, and trust.
I get it, I suppose. They expect to Dial It In. Total Control.
But there’s an Imp of the Perverse, to that sort of perversity. And the Ultimate Reduction of that unholy alchemy is more liable to crystallize Adamantine Opposition than it is to catalyze the Universal Solvent.
Seriously. If you can hear me- back away from that.
Academic Anthropology, setting itself up to be ritually murdered and devoured by Behavioral Psych. Maybe that’s the logical rebound from the influence of the sophistries of the Deconstructionists, having convinced Anthro that it’s soul is an illusion to be dispensed with.
Good thing that the real action in anthropology is…somewhere else.
No, Deconstructionism was never my thing either. And neither was academia.
That’s left me free to come up with an Anthropological Paradigm of my very own. I call it Inertial Functionalism.
The precept of Inertial Functionalism holds that a given human culture learns over time to adapt to a given set of conditions- ecological, material, and in regard to any “foreign’ human neighbors that they might have. And the ones that are most successful get very good at continuing to do what they’ve always done, to make themselves successful. To the point where their power grows so great that it’s simply experienced as inertial, as the baseline for the culture/society on top..the ball is rolling, and it keeps rolling…until conditions change. Which they do.
A society/culture that uses its consciousness to notice those changes might conceivably recover enough actual innovative dynamism to change course, or slow down, or respond in some way other than heading for disaster.
But if it doesn’t- because it’s always been The Winner, and always felt it securely possessed what constituted the keys to success, and can’t imagine what might possibly change, or why it would have to change for anything- it hits the wall. What used to work don’t work no more.
…
I keep paging through history, looking for an example of a dominant culture that learned to maintain enough flexibility, humility, and foresight that it headed off its own destruction.
But I haven’t found one, yet.
I’ll keep looking. In more places than the history books, though.
31 December 2008, 10:47 amcharles:
“It has been said that anthropology is the handmaiden of imperialism and colonialism”
Yeah, I’ve heard that one before.
^^^
2 January 2009, 3:33 pmCB: I should say that I have two degrees in anthropology. I basically consider myself to “be” an anthropologist intellectually. So this statement is meant to be a form of criticism/self-criticism. Or at least the idea is to let people know that I know anthropology ain’t perfect, even though I talk it all the time. Have you ever seen the collection of essays _Reinventing Anthropology_ ?
charles:
“thick descriptive analysis”
^^^^
CB: “Thick description” is a concept from the late Clifford Geertz. My main teacher, Marshall Sahlins, kind of left cultural materialism in about 1972 in lectures I had in my Senior theory class with him, and became theoretically much closer to Geertz. The 1972 lectures’ ideas are all together in _Culture and Practical Reason_. Sahlins became a Levi-Straussian structrualist.
I have a critique of Sahlins, which is something of a negation of a negation of cultural materialism.
2 January 2009, 3:45 pm